Abstract

This study aims to examine the effects of play with loose parts on children’s play behaviors and executive function skills. Conducted using an action research design, the study involved 24 children aged 60-77 months attending a public primary school kindergarten in Ankara, along with the teacher-researcher. The intervention process was planned in three cycles, each involving the gradual restructuring of play with loose parts within the classroom environment. In the first cycle, materials were arranged to be easily accessible in the classroom, and adjustments were made to enhance children’s engagement with the materials. In the second cycle, play-planning practices were introduced. In the third cycle, the plan-play-review sequence was strengthened, and play contexts (classroom, workshop, and outdoor settings) were systematically alternated. Throughout the process, video recordings of free play sessions and field notes were analyzed using an inductive approach. The findings were further supported by a checklist focusing on play behaviors related to executive function and by the researcher’s reflective journal. By the end of the intervention, improvements were observed in children’s indicators of working memory, cognitive flexibility, attention, inhibitory control, and organization-planning. In addition, play behaviors shifted toward more mature play patterns characterized by planning, social interaction, richer themes, and extended play durations. Overall, the findings suggest that loose parts play, when supported by teacher guidance, can foster the development of executive function skills in early childhood.

Keywords: Loose parts, Executive function, Play behaviors, Mature play behaviors, Action research

References

  1. Adam, N., Blaye, A., Gulbinaite, R., Chabé-Ferret, S., & Farrer, C. (2022). A multidimensional evaluation of the benefits of an ecologically realistic training based on pretend play for preschoolers’ cognitive control and self-regulation: From behavior to the underlying theta neuro-oscillatory activity. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, (216), 105348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105348
  2. Aras, S. (2020). Action research as an inquiry-based teaching practice model for teacher education programs. Systemic Practice and Action Research, (34), 153-168. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11213-020-09526-9
  3. Aras, S. (2023). Building up formative assessment practices through action research: A study in early childhood teacher education. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 45(1), 2-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/10901027.2023.2217413
  4. Armstrong, T., & Nuttall, A. (2022). Reconnaissance work in educational research: An exploration under pandemic conditions. PRACTICE, 4(3), 226-238. https://doi.org/10.1080/25783858.2022.2147016
  5. Aşkar, N. (2024). Erken çocukluk eğitimi ortamlarında açık uçlu materyallerin kullanımı. Erken Çocukluk Çalışmaları Dergisi, 8(1), 130-150. https://doi.org/10.24130/eccdjecs.1967202481552
  6. Aşkar, N., & Durmuşoğlu, M. C. (2023). Meaning of play with loose parts materials in preschool education: A case study. Journal of Qualitative Research in Education, (33), 71-111. https://doi.org/10.14689/enad.33.1645
  7. Bagiati, A., & Evangelou, D. (2016). Practicing engineering while building with blocks: Identifying engineering thinking. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 24(1), 67-85. https://doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2015.1120521
  8. Bailey, D. H., Duncan, G. J., Cunha, F., Foorman, B. R., & Yeager, D. S. (2020). Persistence and fade-out of educational-intervention effects: Mechanisms and potential solutions. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 21(2), 55-97. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100620915848
  9. Beisly, A., Kwon, K., & Jeon, S. (2020). Executive function and learning behaviors: Associations with academic skills among preschoolers. Early Child Development and Care, 190(15), 2469-2483. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2019.1585347
  10. Berk, L. E., & Meyers, A. B. (2013). The role of make-believe play in the development of executive function: Status of research and future directions. American Journal of Play, 6(1), 98-110. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1016170
  11. Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (2017). Zihnin araçları: Erken çocukluk eğitiminde Vygotsky yaklaşımı (G. Haktanır, T. Güler-Yıldız, F. Şahin, A. Yılmaz, & E. Kalkan, Trans.). Anı Yayıncılık.
  12. Brown, L. (2010). Quasi-experimental research. In G. MacNaughton, S. A. Rolfe & I. Siraj-Blatchford (Eds.), Doing early childhood research. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003115403-20.
  13. Cankaya, O., Rohatyn-Martin, N., Leach, J., Taylor, K., & Bulut, O. (2023). Preschool children’s loose parts play and the relationship to cognitive development: A review of the literature. Journal of Intelligence, 11(8), 151. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11080151
  14. Casey, T., & Robertson, J. (2016). Loose parts play: A toolkit. Inspiring Scotland. https://www.playscotland.org/resources/loose-parts-play-a-toolkit-pdf-2/
  15. Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. (2024). Executive function activities for 3- to 5-year-olds. https://developingchild.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Executive-Function-Activities-for-3-to-5-year-olds.pdf
  16. Cheng, Z. J., Ma, C. X., Huang, R., & Bai, Y. (2024). Preschool children’s deeper-learning in mature play. Early Childhood Education Journal, (53), 1391-1406. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-024-01673-1
  17. Coghlan, D. (2020). Action research. In V. P. Glăveanu (Ed.), The palgrave encyclopedia of the possible (pp. 9-16). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98390-5_180-1.
  18. Coghlan, D., & Brydon-Miller, M. (2014). The SAGE encyclopedia of action research. SAGE. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446294406
  19. Cowan, N. (1999). An embedded-processes model of working memory. In A. Miyake & P. Shah (Eds.), Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control (pp. 62-102). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139174909.006
  20. Creswell, J. W. (2017). Nitel araştırmacılar için 30 temel beceri (H. Özcan, Trans.). Anı Yayıncılık.
  21. Davis, C. L., Tomporowski, P. D., McDowell, J. E., Austin, B. P., Miller, P. H., Yanasak, N. E., Allison, J. D., & Naglieri, J. A. (2011). Exercise improves executive function and achievement and alters brain activation in overweight children: A randomized, controlled trial. Health Psychology, 30(1), 91-98. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021766
  22. Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, (64), 135-168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
  23. Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333(6045), 959-964. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204529
  24. Diamond, A., & Ling, D. S. (2016). Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, (18), 34-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2015.11.005
  25. Diamond, A., Lee, C., Senften, P., Lam, A., & Abbott, D. (2019). Randomized control trial of Tools of the Mind: Marked benefits to kindergarten children and their teachers. PloS One, 14(9), e0222447. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222447
  26. Fàbregues, S., Sáinz, M., Romano, M. J., Escalante-Barrios, E. L., Younas, A., & López-Pérez, B.-S. (2023). Use of mixed methods research in intervention studies to increase young people’s interest in STEM: A systematic methodological review. Frontiers in Psychology, (13), 956300. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.956300
  27. Fixsen, D. L., Naoom, S. F., Blase, K. A., Friedman, R. M., & Wallace, F. (2005). Implementation research: A synthesis of the literature. University of South Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, National Implementation Research Network. https://nirn.fpg.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/NIRN-MonographFull-01-2005.pdf
  28. Fjørtoft, I. (2004). Landscape as playscape: The effects of natural environments on children’s play and motor development. Children, Youth and Environments, 14(2), 21-44. https://doi.org/10.1353/cye.2004.0054
  29. Fleer, M., Veresov, N., Harrison, L., & Walker, S. (2017). Working with teachers' pedagogical strengths: The design of executive function activities for play-based programs. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 42(4), 47-55. https://doi.org/10.23965/AJEC.42.4.06
  30. Germeroth, C., Bodrova, E., Day-Hess, C., Barker, J., Sarama, J., Clements, D. H., & Layzer, C. (2019). Play it high, play it low: Examining the reliability and validity of a new observation tool to measure children's make-believe play. American Journal of Play, 11(2), 183-221.
  31. Gibb, R., Coelho, L., Van Rootselaar, N. A., Halliwell, C., MacKinnon, M., Plomp, I., & Gonzalez, C. L. (2021). Promoting executive function skills in preschoolers using a play-based program. Frontiers in Psychology, (12), 720225. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.720225
  32. Gibson, J. J. (1986). The ecological approach to visual perception. Houghton Mifflin.
  33. Goldschmied, E., & Jackson, S. (1994). People under three: Young children in day care. Routledge. https://books.google.com.tr/books/about/People_Under_Three.html?id=tfMzK3_r8uIC&redir_esc=y
  34. Goldstein, T. R., & Lerner, M. D. (2018). Dramatic pretend play games uniquely improve emotional control in young children. Developmental Science, 21(4), e12603. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12603
  35. Graue, M. E., Chang, F., Ramberg, E., & Kim, Y. J. (2025). Developing an observational tool to support play-based teaching. American Journal of Play, 17(2), 161-193.
  36. Guerra, P., & Figueroa, I. (2018). Action-research and early childhood teachers in Chile: Analysis of a teacher professional development experience. Early Years, 38(4), 396-410. https://doi.org/10.1080/09575146.2017.1288088.
  37. Guest, G., Bunce, A., & Johnson, L. (2006). How many interviews are enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability. Field Methods, 18(1), 59-82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X05279903
  38. Gull, C., Goldstein, S. L., & Rosengarten, T. (2020). Seven loose parts myths busted. Exchange, (256), 34-38. https://ccie-catalog.s3.amazonaws.com/library/5025634.pdf
  39. Güler, T. (2007). Play planning model in early childhood. Education and Science, 32(143), 117-128. https://educationandscience.ted.org.tr/article/view/728
  40. Hayward, D. G., Rothenberg, M., & Beasley, R. R. (1974). Children's play and urban playground environments: A comparison of traditional, contemporary, and adventure playground types. Environment and Behavior, 6(2), 131-168. https://doi.org/10.1177/001391657400600201
  41. Hopman, J. (2019). Fieldwork supervision: Supporting ethical reflexivity to enhance research analysis. International Journal of Research & Method in Education, 44(1), 41-52. https://doi.org/10.1080/1743727x.2019.1706467.
  42. Hughes, B. (1996). A playworker’s taxonomy of play types. PlayLink. https://books.google.com.tr/books/about/A_Playworker_s_Taxonomy_of_Play_Types.html?id=jKwSAAAACAAJ&redir_esc=y
  43. Johnson, A. P. (2019). Eylem araştırmaları el kitabı (Y. Uzuner & M. Ö. Anay, Trans.). Anı.
  44. Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J. & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75-86. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1
  45. Koepp, A. E., Gershoff, E. T., Castelli, D. M., & Bryan, A. E. (2022). Preschoolers’ executive functions following indoor and outdoor free play. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, (28), 100182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2022.100182
  46. Landreth, G., & Homeyer, L. (2021). Play as the language of children's feelings (2nd ed.). Play from Birth to Twelve and Beyond. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9780203622650-12/play-language-children-feelings-doris-pronin-fromberg-doris-bergen
  47. Lautamo, T. (2012). Play assessment for group settings: Validating a measurement tool for assessment of children's play performance in the day-care context (Publication No. 450) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Jyväskylä]. Jyväskylän yliopisto. https://jyx.jyu.fi/bitstreams/7bd371f1-cd51-4a1f-a626-bb0572d7cc47/download
  48. Loebach, J., & Cox, A. (2020). Tool for observing play outdoors (TOPO): A new typology for capturing children’s play behaviors in outdoor environments. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(15), 5611. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155611
  49. MacNaughton, G., & Hughes, P. (2009). Doing action research in early childhood studies: A step-by-step guide. Open University Press.
  50. MacNaughton, G., Rolfe, S. A., & Siraj‐Blatchford, I. (2010). Doing Early childhood research: International perspectives (2nd ed.). Open University Press.
  51. McClelland, M. M., Tominey, S. L., Schmitt, S. A., Hatfield, B. E., Purpura, D. J., Gonzales, C. R., & Tracy, A. N. (2019). Red light, purple light! Results of an intervention to promote school readiness for children from low-income backgrounds. Frontiers in Psychology, (10), 2365. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02365
  52. Miguel, P. M., Meaney, M. J., & Silveira, P. P. (2023). New research perspectives on the interplay between genes and environment on executive function development. Biological Psychiatry, 94(2), 131-141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2023.01.008
  53. Miller, M. R., Müller, U., Giesbrecht, G. F., Carpendale, J. I., & Kerns, K. A. (2013). The contribution of executive function and social understanding to preschoolers’ letter and math skills. Cognitive Development, 28(4), 331-349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2012.10.005
  54. Ministry of National Education. (2024). Okul öncesi eğitim programı (36-72 aylık çocuklar için). https://tegm.meb.gov.tr/dosya/okuloncesi/guncellenenokuloncesiegitimprogrami.pdf
  55. Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49-100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
  56. Moore, R., & Gilliard, J. (2008). Preservice teachers conducting action research in early education centers. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 29(1), 45-58. https://doi.org/10.1080/10901020701878669
  57. Neill, P. (2013). Open-ended materials belong outside too! HighScope Extensions, 27(2), 1-19. https://highscope.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/156.pdf
  58. Newton, H. (2022). Supporting executive functioning in a play-based environment. He Rourou, 2(1), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.54474/herourou.v2i1.7141
  59. Nicholson, S. (1971). How not to cheat children: The theory of loose parts. Landscape Architecture, (62), 30-34.
  60. Özel Eğitim Hizmetleri Yönetmeliği. (2018, July 7). Resmî Gazete (30471). https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2018/07/20180707-8.htm
  61. Patton, M. Q. (2018). Nitel araştırma ve değerlendirme yöntemleri (M. Bütün & S. B. Demir, Trans.). Pegem Akademi.
  62. Sakshaug, L., Wohlhuter, K., & Lach, T. (2008). A teacher’s professional development through action research. Investigations in Mathematics Learning, 1(1), 27-40. https://doi.org/10.1080/24727466.2008.11790279
  63. Sandow, S. (1979). Action research and evaluation: Can research and practice be successfully combined? Child: Care, Health and Development, 5(3), 211-223. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.1979.tb00125.x
  64. Schwandt, T. A., & Halpern, E. S. (1988). Linking auditing and meta evaluation: Enhancing quality in applied research. SAGE.
  65. Shonkoff, J. P., Duncan, G. J., Fisher, P. A., Magnuson, K., & Raver, C. C. (2011). Building the brain’s ‘air traffic control’ system: How early experiences shape the development of executive function (Working paper 11). Enter on the Developing Child at Harvard University. https://www.developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/building-the-brains-air-traffic-control-system-how-early-experiences-shape-the-development-of-executive-function/
  66. Sigel, I. E. (1993). The centrality of a distancing model for the development of representational competence. In R. R. Cocking, & K. A. Renninger (Eds.), The development and meaning of psychological distance (pp. 141-157). Erlbaum. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203772348-11/centrality-distancing-model-development-representational-competence-irving-sigel
  67. Simoncini, K., & Meeuwissen, K. (2024). ‘Don’t hog, share and just let your imagination flow’: Lessons from structured and unstructured loose parts play in middle primary school classrooms. The Australian Educational Researcher (52), 703-720. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-024-00737-w.
  68. Stringer, E. (2014). Action research in education (2nd ed.). Pearson. https://sehthehfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Ernie-Stringer-Action-Research-in-Education_-Pearson-New-International-Edition-Pearson-2013.pdf
  69. Thibodeau-Nielsen, R. B., Turley, D., DeCaro, J. A., Gilpin, A. T., & Nancarrow, A. F. (2021). Physiological substrates of imagination in early childhood. Social Development, 30(3), 867-882. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12505
  70. Thibodeau-Nielsen, R. B., Gilpin, A. T., Palermo, F., Nancarrow, A. F., Farrell, C. B., Turley, D., DeCaro, J. A., Lochman, J. E., & Boxmeyer, C. L. (2020). Pretend play as a protective factor for developing executive functions among children living in poverty. Cognitive Development, 56, 100964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2020.100964
  71. Walker, L. (2013). Tensions between practitioner researchers and university human research ethics regulatory boards. In M. Kompf & P. M. Denicolo, (Eds.), Critical issues in the future of learning and teaching (pp. 147-160). SensePublishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6209-046-0_12
  72. Walker, S., Fleer, M., Veresov, N., & Duhn, I. (2020). Enhancing executive function through imaginary play: A promising new practice principle. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 45(2), 114-126. https://doi.org/10.1177/1836939120918502
  73. Weisberg, D. S., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., Kittredge, A. K., & Klahr, D. (2016). Guided play: Principles and practices. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25(3), 177-182. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721416645512
  74. Werner, H., & Kaplan, B. (1963). Symbol formation. Wiley. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1963-35019-000
  75. White, R. E., & Carlson, S. M. (2016). What would Batman do? Self‐distancing improves executive function in young children. Developmental Science, 19(3), 419-426. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12314
  76. White, R. E., Prager, E. O., Schaefer, C., Kross, E., Duckworth, A. L., & Carlson, S. M. (2017). The “Batman Effect”: Improving perseverance in young children. Child Development, 88(5), 1563-1571. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12695
  77. Whitebread, D. (2010). Play and learning in the early years from research to practice: Play, metacognition and self-regulation. In P. Broadhead, J. Howard, & E. A. Wood (Eds.), Play, metacognition and self-regulation (pp. 161-177). SAGE Publications. https://books.google.com.tr/books?hl=tr&lr=&id=OE2sNrj-nukC&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&ots=XBG5a0lC9Q&sig=zYNFtEZ69G_MGKW0JLF9j77l27k&redir_esc=y
  78. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: Development of higher psychological processes (M. Cole, V. Jolm-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjf9vz4
  79. Vygotsky, L. S. (2016). Play and its role in the mental development of the child. International Research in Early Childhood Education, 7(2), 3-25. (Original work delivered 1933; first published 1966). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1138861.pdf
  80. Zeng, H., & Ng, S. (2024). Free play matters: Promoting kindergarten children’s science learning using questioning strategies during loose parts play. Early Childhood Education Journal, (53), 2373-2388. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-024-01741-6.
  81. Zhou, Y., & Tolmie, A. (2024). Associations between gross and fine motor skills, physical activity, executive function, and academic achievement: Longitudinal findings from the UK millennium cohort study. Brain Sciences, 14(2), 121. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14020121

Copyright and license

Copyright © 2026 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.

How to cite

Aşkar, N., & Durmuşoğlu, M. C. (2026). Loose parts play and executive function in early childhood: an action research study. Education and Science, 1-29. https://doi.org/10.15390/ES.2025.2897